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HIV &

has now surpassed the Black Death on its course to become the worst pandemic in human history. At the end of 2004, 20 million people had been killed by it, and twice that number is currently infected with HIV. Barring a medical breakthrough, it could claim the lives of some 60 million people by 2015. exerts a terrible toll on societies, crippling their economies, decimating their labor forces and orphaning their children.
Nine out of 10 people living with HIV are in the developing world; 60 to 70% of those are in Sub-Saharan Africa. But the disease is spreading in every region, with fierce epidemics threatening to tear through countries such as India, China, Russia and the islands of the Caribbean. The statistics are sobering — in some Southern African towns 44% of pregnant women are HIV positive, in Botswana 37% of people carry the virus.
Immune assassin
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus—a virus built of RNA instead of more typical DNA. It attacks the very cells of the immune system that should be protecting the body against it —F lymphocytes and other white blood cells with CD4 receptors on their suces. The virus uses the CD4 receptor to bind with and thereby enter the lymphocyte. HIV then integrates itself into the cell’s own DNA, turning the cell into a virus-generating factory. The new viruses break free, destroying the cell, then move on to attack other lymphocytes.
HIV kills by slowly destroying the immune system. Several weeks after initial infection, flu-like symptoms are experienced. Then the immune system kicks-in, and the virus mostly retreats into hiding within lymph tissues. The untreated, infected individual usually remains healthy for 5 to 15 years, but the virus continues to replicate in the background, slowly obliterating the immune system.
ually the body is unable to defend itself and succumbs to overwhelming opportunistic infections that rarely affect healthy people. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome () is the name given to this final stage of HIV infection, and is characterized by multiple, life-threatening illnesses such is weight loss, chronic diarrheoa, rare cancers, pneumonia, fungal conditions and infections of the brain and eye. Tuberculosis has become especially prevalent in victims.
Natural born killer
Genetic yses hint that ancestral primate HIV may have been born a million years ago when a chimpanzee virus hybridized (杂交) with a related monkey variety. However researchers believe it was not until the 1930s that this jumped to humans eating chimp meat in Central Africa. That variety became HIV-1 — the most widespread type. A second type, HIV-2, restricted to West Africa, was probably contracted in the 1960s from monkey meat.
Another theory was that the pandemic was accidentally started by doctors testing a polio vaccine in the 1950s—detailed in Edward Hooper’s book The River — but this has been severely criticized by other researchers.
must have been circulating in the US and Africa during the 1970s. But it was not recognized until 1981 when young gay men and injecting drug users, in New York and California, started to be diagnosed with both an unusual skin cancer called Kaposi’s sarcoma, and lethal pneumonias. By the end of that year 121 people in the US had died — that number would rise to 17,000 over the next six years.
Government scientists predicted that the mysterious immune-debilitating illness was due to an infectious agent. In 1984 that agent was identified as HIV by Luc Montagnier of the Pasteur Institute in Paris, France, and Robert Gallo of the National Cancer Institute in Washington DC, US.
Soon after the appearance of in the US, the disease was detected in Europe too and epidemics affecting heteroual men and women sprang up at an alarming rate in Sub-Saharan Africa. Today one in five people in that region are living with the virus. epidemics also threaten to devastate the world’s most populous nations — India and China — if action is not taken to bring them under control. Defensive measures
HIV is found in body fluids such as: blood, semen, vaginal fluids and breast milk. It can be passed on through penetrative , oral and sharing contaminated needles when injecting street drugs or in hospitals. It can also be transmitted from a mother to her baby during pregnancy, childbirth or breastfeeding — though many children escape infection. HIV cannot be passed on through kissing, coughing, mosquito bites or touching.
Health authorities are focusing on prion as a key method to limit the spread of the epidemic. Educational programs preach abstinence from , monogamy and safer using condoms, as ways to protect against infection. Many countries give away free condoms and offer needle exchange programs to try and limit transmission among injecting drug users. Microbicides in the form of creams that pr transmission of HIV may soon offer another method of protection.
A vaccine, as an alternative method to pr HIV infection, may still be many years away. This is partly because the virus mutates so rapidly. A vaccine may not only have to prime antibodies to attack the virus (the way most vaccines work) but might also need to increase T-cell production. Vaccine trial; have been undertaken in South Africa, Kenya, the US and Thailand — though most have yet to yield promising results. Controversial vaccines made from the blood of HIV carriers, have been tested is Nigeria and Thailand.
Anti-retroviral cocktails
There is no cure for , but a range of drugs—some of which have unpleasant side-effects—are available to slow, its progress. Other drugs are used to treat opportunistic infections or symptoms. Even some herbal treatments have been investigated.
Most anti-HIV drugs aim at stalling viral replication. Nucleoside ogues such as AZT (zidovudine) and also non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) (非核苷类逆转录酶抑制剂), attack the action of the viral enzyme reverse transcriptase. This prs it from creating functional DNA which would otherwise integrate into the DNA of infected cells.
A third class block protease, an enzyme essential for generating functional virus particles. Protease inhibitors are the most effective of the three types of drugs, and mortality fell dramatically in the US when they were first licensed during the late 1990s. Fusion inhibitors are a newer type of drug that work by stopping HIV from binding with CD4 receptors that it uses to enter cells. Drugs that block another enzyme, integrase (整合酶), are also under development.
drugs are often administered in combination cocktails of three or more kinds simultaneously, as this helps slow the rate at which HIV develops resistance to drugs. But the virus is able to evolve rapidly and can ually outpace the drugs if treatment regimens are not followed rigorously.
Though drugs are widely available in Western countries, their expense means they are unavailable to the vast majority of sufferers. International bodies are working towards widening access to treatment in the developing world. Some companies in countries such as India and Thailand are now producing cheap generic copies of drugs.
Staggering toll
The economic and social burden of exerts a great toll on developing nations in addition to that exerted by mortality itself. is hindering development and leading to negative population growth in some of the most seriously affected nations, such as Botswana.
This excessive mortality is causing a great demographic shift, wiping out young s in the prime of their lives. This leaves children orphaned, and is destroying workforces and economies. Some predict that 50 million children in Sub-Saharan Africa will have been orphaned by 2010. The labor forces of 38 ravaged countries will be up to 35% smaller by 2020, because of .
The effect of on agricultural communities in Southern Africa is even leading to food shortages. Social stigma and discrimination is yet another problem for many sufferers, especially in Asian nations.

HIV & Immune assassinNatural born killerAnti-retroviral cocktailsStaggering tollBesides the threat of death, another problem for many sufferers, especially in Asian nations, is().

has now surpassed the Black Death on its course to become the worst pandemic in human history. At the end of 2004, 20 million people had been killed by it, and twice that number is currently infected with HIV. Barring a medical breakthrough, it could claim the lives of some 60 million people by 2015. exerts a terrible toll on societies, crippling their economies, decimating their labor forces and orphaning their children.
Nine out of 10 people living with HIV are in the developing world; 60 to 70% of those are in Sub-Saharan Africa. But the disease is spreading in every region, with fierce epidemics threatening to tear through countries such as India, China, Russia and the islands of the Caribbean. The statistics are sobering — in some Southern African towns 44% of pregnant women are HIV positive, in Botswana 37% of people carry the virus.
Immune assassin
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus—a virus built of RNA instead of more typical DNA. It attacks the very cells of the immune system that should be protecting the body against it —F lymphocytes and other white blood cells with CD4 receptors on their suces. The virus uses the CD4 receptor to bind with and thereby enter the lymphocyte. HIV then integrates itself into the cell’s own DNA, turning the cell into a virus-generating factory. The new viruses break free, destroying the cell, then move on to attack other lymphocytes.
HIV kills by slowly destroying the immune system. Several weeks after initial infection, flu-like symptoms are experienced. Then the immune system kicks-in, and the virus mostly retreats into hiding within lymph tissues. The untreated, infected individual usually remains healthy for 5 to 15 years, but the virus continues to replicate in the background, slowly obliterating the immune system.
ually the body is unable to defend itself and succumbs to overwhelming opportunistic infections that rarely affect healthy people. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome () is the name given to this final stage of HIV infection, and is characterized by multiple, life-threatening illnesses such is weight loss, chronic diarrheoa, rare cancers, pneumonia, fungal conditions and infections of the brain and eye. Tuberculosis has become especially prevalent in victims.
Natural born killer
Genetic yses hint that ancestral primate HIV may have been born a million years ago when a chimpanzee virus hybridized (杂交) with a related monkey variety. However researchers believe it was not until the 1930s that this jumped to humans eating chimp meat in Central Africa. That variety became HIV-1 — the most widespread type. A second type, HIV-2, restricted to West Africa, was probably contracted in the 1960s from monkey meat.
Another theory was that the pandemic was accidentally started by doctors testing a polio vaccine in the 1950s—detailed in Edward Hooper’s book The River — but this has been severely criticized by other researchers.
must have been circulating in the US and Africa during the 1970s. But it was not recognized until 1981 when young gay men and injecting drug users, in New York and California, started to be diagnosed with both an unusual skin cancer called Kaposi’s sarcoma, and lethal pneumonias. By the end of that year 121 people in the US had died — that number would rise to 17,000 over the next six years.
Government scientists predicted that the mysterious immune-debilitating illness was due to an infectious agent. In 1984 that agent was identified as HIV by Luc Montagnier of the Pasteur Institute in Paris, France, and Robert Gallo of the National Cancer Institute in Washington DC, US.
Soon after the appearance of in the US, the disease was detected in Europe too and epidemics affecting heteroual men and women sprang up at an alarming rate in Sub-Saharan Africa. Today one in five people in that region are living with the virus. epidemics also threaten to devastate the world’s most populous nations — India and China — if action is not taken to bring them under control. Defensive measures
HIV is found in body fluids such as: blood, semen, vaginal fluids and breast milk. It can be passed on through penetrative , oral and sharing contaminated needles when injecting street drugs or in hospitals. It can also be transmitted from a mother to her baby during pregnancy, childbirth or breastfeeding — though many children escape infection. HIV cannot be passed on through kissing, coughing, mosquito bites or touching.
Health authorities are focusing on prion as a key method to limit the spread of the epidemic. Educational programs preach abstinence from , monogamy and safer using condoms, as ways to protect against infection. Many countries give away free condoms and offer needle exchange programs to try and limit transmission among injecting drug users. Microbicides in the form of creams that pr transmission of HIV may soon offer another method of protection.
A vaccine, as an alternative method to pr HIV infection, may still be many years away. This is partly because the virus mutates so rapidly. A vaccine may not only have to prime antibodies to attack the virus (the way most vaccines work) but might also need to increase T-cell production. Vaccine trial; have been undertaken in South Africa, Kenya, the US and Thailand — though most have yet to yield promising results. Controversial vaccines made from the blood of HIV carriers, have been tested is Nigeria and Thailand.
Anti-retroviral cocktails
There is no cure for , but a range of drugs—some of which have unpleasant side-effects—are available to slow, its progress. Other drugs are used to treat opportunistic infections or symptoms. Even some herbal treatments have been investigated.
Most anti-HIV drugs aim at stalling viral replication. Nucleoside ogues such as AZT (zidovudine) and also non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) (非核苷类逆转录酶抑制剂), attack the action of the viral enzyme reverse transcriptase. This prs it from creating functional DNA which would otherwise integrate into the DNA of infected cells.
A third class block protease, an enzyme essential for generating functional virus particles. Protease inhibitors are the most effective of the three types of drugs, and mortality fell dramatically in the US when they were first licensed during the late 1990s. Fusion inhibitors are a newer type of drug that work by stopping HIV from binding with CD4 receptors that it uses to enter cells. Drugs that block another enzyme, integrase (整合酶), are also under development.
drugs are often administered in combination cocktails of three or more kinds simultaneously, as this helps slow the rate at which HIV develops resistance to drugs. But the virus is able to evolve rapidly and can ually outpace the drugs if treatment regimens are not followed rigorously.
Though drugs are widely available in Western countries, their expense means they are unavailable to the vast majority of sufferers. International bodies are working towards widening access to treatment in the developing world. Some companies in countries such as India and Thailand are now producing cheap generic copies of drugs.
Staggering toll
The economic and social burden of exerts a great toll on developing nations in addition to that exerted by mortality itself. is hindering development and leading to negative population growth in some of the most seriously affected nations, such as Botswana.
This excessive mortality is causing a great demographic shift, wiping out young s in the prime of their lives. This leaves children orphaned, and is destroying workforces and economies. Some predict that 50 million children in Sub-Saharan Africa will have been orphaned by 2010. The labor forces of 38 ravaged countries will be up to 35% smaller by 2020, because of .
The effect of on agricultural communities in Southern Africa is even leading to food shortages. Social stigma and discrimination is yet another problem for many sufferers, especially in Asian nations.

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刷刷题刷刷变学霸
举一反三

【单选题】下列哪一项不属于逆转录酶的功能()

A.
以RNA为模板合成DNA
B.
以DNA为模板合成DNA
C.
水解RNA-DNA杂交分子中的RNA链
D.
指导合成RNA

【单选题】下列哪个不属于逆转录酶的功能()

A.
依赖RNA的DNA聚合酶活力
B.
核糖核酸酶H活力
C.
依赖DNA指导下的DNA酶聚合活力
D.
使RNA的碱基与五碳糖之间化学键断裂

【单选题】逆转录酶并不具备的特性是

A.
RNA指导的DNA合成活性
B.
DNA指导的RNA合成活性
C.
DNA指导的DNA合成活性
D.
RNA的降解(水解)反应活性
E.
合成与RNA互补的双链DNA的活性

【多选题】有关逆转录酶的论述哪些是正确的( )。

A.
具有依赖于RNA的DNA聚合酶活性
B.
具有依赖于DNA的DNA聚合酶活性
C.
不具备5’→ 3’或3’→ 5’核酸外切酶活性
D.
催化合成反应时,需要模板及3’-OH引物

【多选题】关于逆转录酶的叙述正确的是

A.
作用物为四种dNTP
B.
催化RNA的水解反应
C.
合成方向3'5'
D.
催化以RNA为模板进行DNA合成
E.
可形成DNA—RNA杂交体中间产物

【单选题】逆转录酶可以催化

A.
以RNA为模板的DNA合成
B.
以DNA为模板的RNA合成
C.
以mRNA为模板的蛋白质合成
D.
以RNA为模板的RNA合成

【单选题】逆转录酶是()聚合酶。

A.
以DNA为模板的RNA
B.
以RNA为模板的DNA
C.
以RNA为模板的RNA
D.
以DNA为模板的DNA